Posted BY: | NwoReport

Arizona Republican Governor Kari Lake on Friday praised an Arkansas county court for its decision to reject electronic voting machines in all future elections, choosing instead to return to paper ballots in a move designed to boost election integrity and confidence in outcomes.

In a tweet lauding the decision by a Cleburne County court, Lake also included a link to a KARK report detailing the ruling:

Officials with the Arkansas Voter Integrity Initiative Inc. (AVII) said the vote was in response to AVII CEO Colonel Conrad Reynolds’ push for election computers to be removed from Arkansas elections. The decision will now require votes to be hand counted.

“The machines do not read the names on the ballots, instead, they scan barcodes, which humans cannot read,” Reynolds said. “They also utilize proprietary software that we are not allowed to examine. This all means voters cannot verify that their vote is being counted properly as mandated by state law.”
Trending: Suddenly Collapsed: 40+ Examples Since Jan. 2021

An attorney with AVII noted that according to Arkansas state law, each county has the right to choose its voting process.

Cleburne County Justice of the Peace Jacque Martin voted in favor of moving to paper ballots. “It’s time we take back and return to having elections we can have faith in – with transparency and integrity,” Martin said, according to KARK.

[…]

Via https://nworeport.me/2023/01/15/kari-lake-celebrates-arkansas-county-court-rejecting-voting-machines-in-elections/

One Nation Under Blackmail: The Sordid Union Between Intelligence and Organized Crime that Gave Rise to Jeffrey Epstein

By Whitney Webb

TrineDay (2022

Book Review

Volume 2 of One Nation Under Blackmail focuses on Jeffrey Epstein himself, both his life history and the key relationships that facilitated his brilliant career of financial fraud, money laundering, arms trafficking, child sex trafficking and sexual blackmail.

Born in 1953, Epstein grew up in Brooklyn. Finishing high school at 16, he attended three years of college but never graduation. Despite his lack of teaching credentials, his first job in 1974 as teaching math and physics at the private Dalton School in Manhattan. Dismissed in 1976 for poor performance (ie engaging in inappropriate behavior with underage students), he went to work at Bear Stearns as a financial trader. He was also dismissed from that job in 1981, following an insider trading scandal.

After leaving Bear Stearns, he started his own financial consulting firm, specializing in helping wealthy clients evade taxes and helping governments recover looted funds from offshore tax havens. During the 1980s, he became involved with the late Adnan Khashoggi, a notorious Saudi arms trafficker and money launderer, with ties to Saudi, US, UK and Israeli intelligence.

Between 1981-88 (during the Iran-Iraq War), China was Iran’s biggest weapons supplier, and Epstein, Khashoggi and Robert Maxwell (Ghislaine Maxwell’s father) worked with the CIA to provide Chinese rocket systems to the CIA-backed Mujihadeen in Afghanistan and the CIA-backed Contras in Nicaragua.

It’s believed former Israeli prime minister Ehud Barack and Robert Maxwell introduced Epstein to Israeli intelligence, which along with Khashoggi, introduced him to art of sexual blackmail. Khashoggi had a history of using his luxury yacht and flirtatious women to video and blackmail high profile businessmen and politicians. Likewise by the mid-eighties, both British and Israeli intelligence were heavily involved in sexual blackmail operations against US leaders. Former Israeli intelligence operative Ari Ben-Menashe claims Epstein’s and Ghislane Maxwell’s sexual blackmail operation was created (in 1991)  at Israel’s behest to blackmail Clinton, who they feared (like Carter) would pressure them to make peace with the Palestinians. The Mossad claims to have 30 hours of phone sex tapes between Clinton and Monica Lewinsky.

In 1987, Epstein was hired as a financial consultant for Towers Financial Corporation, where he launched the largest Ponzi scheme in US history. After leaving Towers, he became a property developer, meeting fellow property developer Donald Trump the same year. Epstein became known for selling the same property repeatedly for a minuscule amount (eg $1), and he Trump, and Trump’s son-in-law Jared Kushner have all been accused of using property sales to help various mobsters launder illicit funds.

Epstein also became financial advisor to the late Leslie Wexner, a Ohio billionaire with strong organized crime connections. By 1991, Wexner had granted him full power of attorney over all his affairs, and by 1995 Wexner had appointed him to the board of the Wexner Foundation. The foundation’s main work involved “molding” young Jewish leaders, both in the US and Israel and lobbying (and blackmailing?) US politicians to support pro-Israeli policies.

Epstein was a member of both the Council of Foreign Relations and the Trilateral Commission (1995-2009).

Relationships:

Trump – although Trump flew on Epstein’s plane in 1997 and and he and Epstein were videoed and photographed at parties together, they had a falling out in 2004 (allegedly over rivalry to purchase the same Palm Beach property). In 2009, Trump provided evidence to lawyers for Epstein’s victims.

Bill Clinton – starting in 1993  Epstein visited the Clinton White House repeatedly, where he seems to have been involved in questionable fundraising activities, including Chinagate*, and lax trade policy regarding exports of sensitive military technology to China. When the Iran-Iraq war ended, China (with the nominal approval of the Clinton administration) flooded American streets with their surplus semi-automatic AK-47s and knock-off high end handguns. Webb reveals evidence that Israeli intelligence was also funneling US weapons technology secrets to China during Clinton’s tenure, and that his Commerce Secretary Ron Brown (who died in a suspicious plane crash) oversaw unauthorized missile transfers to China. When Clinton left office, Epstein helped him set up the Clinton Foundation/slush fund in 2001.

Bill Gates – Webb presents extensive evidence that Gates was lying when he claimed he didn’t meet Epstein in 2011. In 2001-2002, for example, he spoke of Epstein guiding him on specific Gates Foundation donations.

Prince Andrew – Webb presents evidence that Epstein and Ghislaine Maxwell deliberately entrapped King Charles’ younger brother into compromising situations with under age girls. The presumed goal was to coerce him into promoting specific arms deals (owing to his official role as British trade ambassador).

One of the best chapters in the book explores the sordid background behind Vince Foster’s** alleged suicide, involving involving his and Hillary Clinton’s role in passing military secrets to Israeli intelligence, to be passed on to China. The evidence Webb lays out establishes pretty clearly that Foster was murdered.

I also really liked the final chapter, entitled “The Future of Blackmail.” In it, Webb explores the sordid role of Palantir** and the Israeli start-up Carbyne 911 in vacuuming up the private data (which increasingly includes health data) of all Americans. She asserts the security state’s enhanced electronic eavesdropping capability makes the sexual blackmail operations perfected by Epstein and Ghislane Maxwell obsolete. She speculates this is why the shadow government chose to dispense with their services in 2019.

*The Chinagate scandal concerned illegal campaign donations (federal law bans campaign contributions from foreign nationals) Clinton’s 1996 campaign received from Chinese politicians and business people – presumably in return for illegal weapons technology transfers.

**Foster served as Deputy White House Counsel for six months prior to his death in July 1993.

***Palintir is the privatized Total Information Awareness project Congress forced DARPA to cancel in 2004. It funded by the CIA venture capital department arm In-Q-Tel.

By Amy Mek

Global Research News

Fifteen-minute cities are popping up everywhere, and the World Economic Forum is wildly enthusiastic about them. Last year it was announced that Paris, France, would become a 15-minute city, and now the British city of Oxford is next. However, outraged Brits are fighting back.

As reported previously at RAIR Foundation USA, the city council has announced that it will divide Oxford into 15-minute neighborhoods or small 15-minute towns billed as “greener, cleaner and safer.” To further seize control of people’s lives, Globalists are pushing the false idea that these “green” cities, which make services accessible to residents within 15 minutes of their homes, will “save the planet” and help all humanity.

Instead, they are nothing more than a way for them to restrict, coerce, fine, punish, surveil, and limit the fundamental right of freedom of movement for residents. For example, residents are not allowed to leave your 15-minute city by car more than the allotted times a year. Otherwise, you will be fined. In addition, the government will track and control your every movement through your smartphones & facial recognition technology.

World Economic Forum

Climate lockdown

The “15-minute city” concept is crucial in the United Nations Agenda 2030 and their Net Zero green agenda. The World Economic Forum is also pushing this new concept. Oxford, which has declared a ‘climate emergency,’ is hoping their 15-minute cities will help achieve the Council’s ‘Net Zero carbon Oxford’ vision by 2040.”As early as 2024, Oxford plans to impose “climate lockdowns” on residents to help achieve the Council’s ‘Net Zero carbon Oxford’ vision by 2040.” The “15-minute city” concept is also crucial for the United Nations Agenda 2030. And not surprisingly, the World Economic Forum is also pushing the idea.

Oxford will be divided into six zones ‘to save the planet’ from “global warming.” Electronic fences are placed on access roads to ensure residents remain within their own zone.

Residents are allowed to leave their 15-minute city a maximum of 100 times a year, but then they must first register their car, which is tracked throughout the city via smart cameras.

While the initial allotment of escape tickets may seem reasonable to some, once the public accepts that the state has the right to confine you, it is guaranteed that they will add additional restrictions and fewer permits to leave your zone. This was established very clearly and quickly in many Western nations in the past few years under the rubric of Covid restrictions.

Protests

Oxford residents are furious over council plans to turn the city into ’15-minute’ controlled zones. They have been brushed away by the Council, which has ignored their displeasure.

Media silent

Oxford citizens have taken to the streets, “The media is silent, of course,” writes UK journalist Sophie Corcoran. She implored people to stand with the citizens of Oxford against this type of totalitarianism.

Davos Globalist Conference

“At the end of this week, thousands of the world’s elite will be jetting off to Davos in their private jets, whilst people around the globe are starting to be confined to 15-minute zones in their cities and need a permit to drive over it,” Corcoran said.

https://twitter.com/sophielouisecc/status/1612738156511608834?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E1612738156511608834%7Ctwgr%5E9bf86c6fa85fb3f4e5c86a209e80599add845f95%7Ctwcon%5Es1_&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.globalresearch.ca%2Fbritish-protest-15-minute-cities-where-they-will-become-prisoners-state%2F5804522

Corcoran is referring to the Globalist conference next week in the Swiss ski resort of Davos 52 heads of state and government are expected to meet. Nearly 600 company directors have also been invited. Public sessions are held, but it is mainly where the Globalists make their deals behind the scenes in secret backrooms.

While people worldwide are forced to choose between eating dinner or heating their homes, the Elites will fly to Davos in their private planes, stay in posh hotels, eat expensive food and scheme how to confine us to our “15-minute” prisons.

The Dutch party Forum for Democracy (FvD) previously made an English-language video exposing the dangerous and freedom-crushing agenda concocted by the Globalists who attended the annual meeting in Davos this past May:

[…]

Via https://www.globalresearch.ca/british-protest-15-minute-cities-where-they-will-become-prisoners-state/5804522

Posted BY: Kara | NwoReport

A female US Army soldier says she’s being forced out of the armed services due to a side effect caused by the military’s mandatory Covid jab. The soldier says she developed a disease that requires her to take blood thinners, forcing her out of the armed services.

In a video circulating on social media, the female soldier admits, “I got two doses.”

Via https://nworeport.me/2023/01/14/female-soldier-says-shes-been-kicked-out-of-army-after-mandatory-jab-caused-life-altering-side-effects/

Free West Media

Clinics around the world follow guidelines from the Netherlands for gender treatments in children. The basis for this is, among other things, a much-criticized study sponsored by a German hormone manufacturer.

Worldwide, there is increasing criticism of the scientific content and non-existent empirical basis of the Dutch protocol developed at the gender clinic of the Free University of Amsterdam. In several countries, health authorities have already decided to treat children mainly psychologically and prescribe puberty inhibitors only exceptionally. In Sweden, they concluded that “the risks currently outweigh the possible benefits” and spoke of possibly the country’s “worst medical scandal”.

In the UK, criticism of the Dutch protocol was so serious that the Tavistock gender clinic, the largest in the world, was closed by the authorities.

Sweden, Finland and Great Britain only want to prescribe the drug in rare, particularly severe cases. Instead, they are increasingly relying on psychological support for patients.

Since February last year, Sweden’s National Board of Health and Welfare has followed the Karolinska Institute’s policy regarding hormonal interventions for gender-dysphoric minors. Karolinska’s pediatric gender services at Astrid Lindgren Children’s Hospital (ALB) has ended the practice of prescribing puberty blockers and cross-sex hormones to gender-dysphoric patients under the age of 18.

Marketing redundant drugs for the wrong condition

In the US, Texas Attorney General Ken Paxton has been investigating two pharmaceutical companies for advertising puberty blockers to children. This is a condition they are not approved to treat.

In December, Paxton announced investigations under the Texas Deceptive Trade Practices Act into Endo Pharmaceuticals and AbbVie Inc., the two companies that sell puberty blockers. The drugs were approved to treat precocious puberty and forms of prostate cancer but were being marketed and prescribed off-label to treat gender dysphoria.

“These drugs were approved for very different purposes and can have detrimental and even irreversible side effects,” Paxton said. “I will not allow pharmaceutical companies to take advantage of Texas children.”

[…]

Via https://freewestmedia.com/2023/01/13/who-designed-global-guidelines-for-puberty-blockers/

Malhotra’s father, Dr. Kailash Chand — a prominent general practitioner who was formerly deputy chair of the British Medical Association — died in July 2021.

In an October 2022 interview with Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., chairman and chief litigation counsel for Children’s Health Defense (CHD), Malhotra shared how he was one of the first to take the Pfizer vaccine and how he publicly promoted the vaccines on TV. But that was before he thoroughly reviewed the scientific safety data, which convinced him the vaccines pose unprecedented harm.

Malhotra told Kennedy he was prompted to look into the safety data on the COVID-19 vaccine when his father — “a very eminent doctor in the U.K., considered one of the most prolific advocates for the National Health Service” — suffered an unexplained sudden cardiac death in July after getting an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine.

Malhotra has since publicly suggested that mRNA vaccines were a contributing factor in his death.

According to his online biography, Malhotra is a cardiologist and Visiting Professor of Evidence-Based Medicine at the Bahiana School of Medicine and Public Health in Brazil. He is also an honorary council member of the Stanford University School of Medicine’s Metabolic Psychiatry Clinic and cardiology examiner at the U.K.’s University of Hertfordshire.

Malhotra: ‘mRNA vaccines carry a cardiovascular link’

Malhotra appeared on the BBC today to discuss a recent change in policy by the U.K.’s National Health Service (NHS) that loosened restrictions on prescribing statins — medications that reduce cholesterol in the blood — allowing general practitioners to prescribe them to anyone who wants them.

However, several minutes into his live appearance, in the context of a discussion of cardiovascular risk, he pivoted and addressed his views on mRNA vaccines. He said:

“What is almost certain — if I can just say this — my own research has found, and this is something that is probably a likely contributing factor, is that the COVID mRNA vaccines do carry a cardiovascular risk.

“And I’ve actually called for the suspension of this pending an inquiry, because there’s a lot of uncertainty at the moment over what’s causing the excess deaths.”

Malhotra’s remarks caught the network — and presenter Lukwesa Burak — off guard. Visibly uncomfortable, Burak followed up by stating, “So what you’re saying in terms of the mRNA link to cardiovascular risk is that that’s been proven medically, scientifically?”

According to the U.K.’s Press Gazette, a BBC spokesperson later issued a response to the incident, stating:

“Dr Aseem Malhotra was invited on to the BBC News Channel to talk about the latest NICE [National Institute for Health and Care Excellence] recommendations on statins. During the discussion he made unprompted claims about the COVID mRNA vaccine.

“We then asked Professor Peter Openshaw, who represents the overwhelming scientific consensus on the vaccine, to be interviewed on air on this topic and he challenged and rebutted the claims that had been made.”

Openshaw is a professor of experimental medicine at Imperial College London, the same institution that developed “models” predicting large numbers of infections and deaths if severe COVID-19 countermeasures, such as lockdowns and social distancing, were not imposed.

Many people responded positively to Malhotra’s tweet and video.

Emma Kenny, a British psychologist and television presenter, tweeted:

A tweet stated “WOW! Truthbombing on the BBC! Well done Sir

Another tweeted:

“Excellent. You came across very well and put the point about the vax link in a balanced and reasonable way.”

Some other Twitter users were less pleased. One user openly asked Ofcom, Britain’s telecommunications regulator, why the “disgraced, lying fraud” Malhotra was “allowed to do this” on the BBC.

Deborah Elaine tweeted a message about the BBC broadcast to Timothy Caulfield, a professor of law at the University of Alberta in Canada and host of a television program known as “A User’s Guide for Cheating Death.”

Caulfield later followed this up with an enraged tweet asking:

“What the HELL is the @BBCNews doing giving a notorious & discredited anti-vaxxer THIS platform???

“NO evidence to support his claims. He published his ‘analysis’ in a vanity journal that he edits. Etc.

“Pls, get it together, @BBCBreaking @BBChealth! So much damage with this BS!”

Some establishment media also criticized Malhotra. One Yahoo! News headline, for instance, reads “BBC Gives Unchallenged Platform to Anti-Vaxxer.”

The Press Gazette claimed “the overwhelming bulk of peer-reviewed literature suggests that mRNA vaccines are safe.”

Notably, the article was written by Bron Maher, whose Press Gazette bio states he previously worked for NewsGuard, a “fact-checking” firm that closely collaborates with the WHO and social media platforms, as previously reported by The Defender.

Malhotra previously published a peer-reviewed article in the Journal of Insulin Resistance, “Curing the pandemic of misinformation on COVID-19 mRNA vaccines through real evidence-based medicine.”

In July 2021, when his father died, Malhotra tweeted:

Following an October 2022 appearance on Fox News, Malhotra tweeted:

Malhotra said delays in an ambulance being dispatched by the U.K.’s beleaguered NHS to transport his father after suffering cardiac arrest also appears to have contributed to his death.

More and more studies demonstrating link between mRNA vaccines, cardiac problems

In a recent video, New Orleans-based emergency medicine physician Dr. Joseph Fraiman also called for the immediate suspension of the administration of mRNA vaccines.

Fraiman co-authored a peer-reviewed article, “Serious adverse events of special interest following mRNA COVID-19 vaccination in randomized trials in adults,” published in August 2022 in Vaccine.

In his video, Fraiman stated:

“I was the lead author of a peer-reviewed study that reanalyzed the original Pfizer and the Moderna clinical trials for the messenger RNA COVID-19 vaccines. We found the vaccine increased serious adverse events at a rate of one in 800.

“At the time of publication, my co-authors and I did not believe our single study warranted the withdrawal of the messenger RNA vaccines from the market. However, since its publication, multiple new pieces of evidence have come to light, and this has caused me to reevaluate my position.

“An article published in The BMJ regarding the FDA’s [U.S. Food and Drug Administration] own observational surveillance data found the messenger RNAs were associated with multiple of the exact same serious adverse events identified in our original study. But the FDA had failed to inform the public of these findings.

“In addition, now we have multiple autopsy studies that find essentially conclusive evidence that the vaccines are inducing sudden cardiac deaths. Yet the rate of these vaccine-induced deaths remains unknown.

“I believe, given the information, the messenger RNA vaccines need to be withdrawn from the market until new randomized controlled trials can clearly demonstrate the benefits of the vaccine outweigh the serious harm now we know the vaccines are causing.”

Malhotra re-tweeted Fraiman’s video, remarking “This is huge.”

[…]

Via https://childrenshealthdefense.org/defender/aseem-malhotra-bbc-suspension-mrna-vaccines/

Sott.net

The story about classified materials found in an office linked to the US president was suppressed days before the midterms.

US President Joe Biden has probably made off with more classified documents than many whistleblowers, but unlike them he will get away with it, former CIA and National Security Agency contractor Edward Snowden suggested on Wednesday.

In a series of tweets, the whistleblower commented on a recent controversy surrounding sensitive Obama-era documents discovered at Biden’s vice-presidential office by his attorneys. The White House has acknowledged the incident and the US Justice Department is currently looking into the matter.

“Worth noting that the President seems to have absconded with more classified documents than many whistleblowers,” Snowden wrote, comparing the situation with the case of Reality Winner who “was sentenced to 5 YEARS for just one document.” The former NSA translator was convicted in 2018 of leaking a report about alleged Russian interference in the 2016 US elections.

“Meanwhile Biden, Trump, Clinton, Petraeus… these guys have dozens, hundreds [of documents]. No jail,” the whistleblower added.

Snowden went on to say that “the real scandal isn’t that Biden had classified documents coming out of his socks, because sadly they’ve all been doing it. The scandal is that the DOJ found out about it a week prior to the midterm elections and chose to suppress the story, conferring a partisan advantage.”

Snowden is known for leaking classified documents exposing Washington’s surveillance efforts that targeted American civilians.

The story about Biden’s documents was first broken by CBS News on Monday, which reported that the president’s personal attorneys had found the documents at the Penn Biden Center for Diplomacy and Global Engagement of the University of Pennsylvania on November 2 and reported them to the authorities.

On Wednesday, NBC News reported, citing sources, that Biden aides had discovered at least one other batch of classified documents at another location.

This bombshell infuriated Republicans, with some drawing parallels with the FBI raid at the residence of former President Donald Trump in search of classified materials. The agency reportedly seized around 300 sensitive files from the ex-president’s estate.

The White House, however, insisted that the two cases are different, claiming that, unlike Trump, Biden had not been notified that he was in possession of the documents, nor had he been asked to return them. Rather, he swiftly revealed the discovery to the National Archives and turned over the papers.

[…]

Via https://www.sott.net/article/476214-Snowden-identifies-real-scandal-regarding-Biden-classified-docs

By TRT World

Global Research

A letter signed by “diverse group” of NGOs calls for closing Guantanamo Bay detention facility in Cuba, which was created after September 11, 2001 attacks but shortly thereafter became a site of “unrelenting human rights violations”.

More than 150 organisations have sent a letter to US President Joe Biden urging him to “prioritise closing the detention facility at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.”

The letter was signed by 159 organisations from the US and other countries who called themselves a “diverse group of non-governmental organisations” working on issues including international human rights, immigrants’ rights, racial justice and combating anti-Muslim discrimination.

“It is long past time for both a sea change in the United States’ approach to national and human security, and a meaningful reckoning with the full scope of damage that the post-9/11 approach has caused,” they wrote in the letter on Wednesday.

“Closing the Guantanamo detention facility, ending indefinite military detention of those held there, and never again using the military base for unlawful mass detention of any group of people are necessary steps towards those ends.”

“We urge you to act without delay, and in a just manner that considers the harm done to the men who have been detained indefinitely without charge or fair trials for two decades,” they added.

Often referred to as Gitmo, the Guantanamo Bay detention facility was created after September 11, 2001 attacks to hold suspects captured in Afghanistan, Iraq and elsewhere.

It became the focus of worldwide controversy over alleged violations of the legal rights of detainees and accusations of torture or abusive treatment of prisoners by US authorities.

Experts appointed by the UN have called Guantanamo Bay “a site of unparalleled notoriety, defined by the systematic use of torture, and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment against hundreds of men brought to the site and deprived of their most fundamental rights.”

‘It destroyed many Muslim lives’

Meanwhile, a virtual rally was held on Wednesday to mark 21 years since the opening of the US military prison in Guantanamo Bay.

The virtual event was attended by many people from different locations, including activists, lawyers and human rights advocates, who demanded the closure of the notorious prison that the US leased from Cuba in 1903 as a coaling station and naval base.

Among the speakers were Daphne Eviatar, Amnesty International USA’s Director of Security with Human Rights, Aliya Hana Hussain, Advocacy Program Manager at the Center for Constitutional Rights and Andy Worthington of the Close Guantanamo campaign as well as other advocates, with Lu Aya, co-founder of The Peace Poets, the moderator.

The participants called on the US government to close Guantanamo prison while talking about the stories of injustice.

Besides calling for justice, the participants marked the 21st anniversary of Guantanamo by reading poems and singing tribute songs.

Like other speakers, Maha Hilal, an author and the co-director of Justice for Muslims Collective, called for the closure of Guantanamo because “it has destroyed the lives of so many Muslim men and boys.”

“As we call for the closure of Guantanamo, we call for the abolition of Guantanamo, and an end to Islamophobia,” she said.

The detention camp has held roughly 780 detainees since it was opened, most of them without charge or trial, with many said to have gone through unspeakable horrors.

Currently, 35 detainees remain and 20 of them are eligible for transfer.

Via https://www.globalresearch.ca/nearly-160-organisations-urge-biden-shut-infamous-guantanamo-prison/5804435

Lecture 16: Harnessing Animal Power – Land Transportation

Understanding Greek and Roman Technology: From the Catapult to the Pantheon

Dr Stephen Ressler (2013)

Film Review

Ressler spends the first third of this lecture explaining the engineering concepts of  machine, work and power.

• Machine: assembly of moving or fixed parts used to perform work.
• Work: quantity of energy expended when a force moves through a distance.
• Power: rate at which work is down.

Humanity owes our concept of simple machines to the third century BC Greek mathematician and inventor Archimedes. Although Archimedes didn’t invent the lever, pulley and screw, by deepening our understanding of their operation, he helped expand their usage.

• Lever – a simple machine that magnifies applied force.
• Pulley – a simple machine that changes the direction of applied force

• Screw –  a simple machine that converts rotational force (aka torque) to longitudinal force.

The Greeks and Romans employed three other simple machines not described by Archimedes. All were in wide usage before the classical period.

• Wedge – a simple machine that converts a singular force into two opposing forces directed perpendicular to the wedge surfaces.

• Inclined plane – enables the lifting of an object with less force than its weight.

• Wheel/axle – allow an object to be propelled with minimal force.

Land Transportation

According to Ressler, there were four main sources of power in ancient Greece and Rome: human beings, animals, water and wind. A mule has five times the power of a human (performs work five times faster), a mule seven times and an ox ten times. Although usually limited to pushing, pulling or carrying heavy burdens, wagons or plows, animals were occasionally used to power grain mills. Water power was used to mill grain and pump water and wind was used to sail ships.

Human porters can only carry 50-60 pounds for no more than a few yards. For heavy loads Greeks and Romans used donkeys (can carry 200 pounds) and mules (can carry 300 pounds). To carry heavy loads long distances, it’s more efficient to load them onto wheeled vehicles pulled by a team of animals.

Both Greeks and Romans commonly used two-wheeled vehicles to carry people.

• Greek warrior chariot

• Greek homoxa – could carry four people
• Roman racing chariot

• Essedum – Roman two seat passenger cart

Both Greeks and Romans used four wheeled vehicles drawn by pack animals to transport heavy loads. The Romans also had a four-wheeled passenger carriage.

The wheel was invented around the 4th millenium BC, and there is archeological evidence in the Near East of 3rd millenium military chariots with spoked wheels.

The Romans used solid wheels (for their simplicity and strength) for oxcarts and massive siege engines

• Spokes – the Greek warrior chariot (see above) used unique crossbar wheels or spoked wheels with up to 10 spokes. Borrowing the design from conquered Celts, the Romans used wheels with up to 21 spokes.
• Axles – the Greeks and Romans used two types of axles. The first fixed the axle to the cart and allowed the wheels to move independently, the second fixed the wheels to the axle. Ressler demonstrates with scale models how the first was more maneuverable but caused greater wear on moving parts. He also demonstrates how the Romans reduced wear by fitting their wooden axles and wheels with thin iron sleeves.
• Traction systems – owing to docility and strength, oxen were pack animals of choice for both Greeks and Romans. The yoke used to connect them to a cart or wagon was first developed during the neolithic period and is still used today in the Third World. It consists of a heavy beam fitting over the animal’s shoulders and held in place with a harness. It’s connected to the vehicle with a single draft pole. Greeks used a similar traction system for the donkeys and mules that pulled their hamaxa.

Film can be viewed free with a library card on Kanopy.

https://www.kanopy.com/en/pukeariki/watch/video/146678/146710